符號學 |
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基本概念 |
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方法 |
符號學家 |
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符號學[註 1](英語:semiotics)是关于符号过程和意义形成的系统研究。符号过程是涉及符号的任何活动、行为或过程,其中符号是向接受者传达某些东西(通常称为意义)的事物。意义可以是有意表达的,例如说出的具有特定含义的词;也可能是无意的,例如症状是特定健康状况的符号。符号还可以传递感觉(一般认为不属于意义),并且可以在个体内部(通过思想本身)或通过任何感官(视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉或味觉)进行交流。当代符号学是研究意义生成和各种类型知识的科学分支。[1]
符号学将符号和记号[註 2]作为传播的重要组成部分进行研究。与语言学不同的是,符号学还研究非语言符号体系。符号学的研究涵盖了符号以及符号过程、指示、指定、相似、類比、託寓、轉喻、隐喻、象征、意指和传播。
通常认为,符号学具有重要的人类学和社会学维度;例如,意大利符号学家、小说家翁贝托·埃科提出,每一种文化现象都可以作为传播来研究。[2]此外,一些符号学家也关注它的逻辑维度。其研究领域也属于生命科学——例如生物体如何预测和适应它们在世界上的符号生态位。基础符号学理论以符号或符号体系为研究对象;应用符号学根据文化和文化制品通过存在符号构建意义的方式来分析它们。生物体中的信息交流则属于生物符号学(包括动物符号学和植物符号学)领域。
需要留意的是,现代意义上的符号学(semiotics)和索绪尔的符号学(semiology)传统并不等同,后者只是前者的一个子集。[3][4]
歷史和術語
符号和意指的重要性在哲学和心理学的大部分历史中都得到了认可。术语“符号学”的英文“semiotics”來自古希臘語 σημειωτικός (sēmeiōtikós),意即:“善于观察记号”[5](词根來自 σημεῖον (sēmeîon),意即:“征象、记号、标志”)。[6]对于希腊人而言,“记号”(σημεῖον,sēmeîon)出现在自然世界,而“符号”(σύμβολον,súmbolon)出现在文化世界。基于此,柏拉图和亚里士多德都探索了记号与世界之间的关系。[7]
直到希波的奥古斯丁[8],符号的性质才在传统体系中得到考虑。奥古斯丁提出了一个建议,即在一个更宽的“符号”(signum)的概念下将两者结合起来,以弥合自然-文化的鸿沟,并将符号识别为只不过是signum的一种(或亚种)。[9]Manetti(1987)研究了这一问题并出版了研究专著。[10][註 3]这些理论对西方哲学产生了持久的影响,尤其是通过经院哲学。
符号的一般研究始于奥古斯丁的拉丁文作品,以1632年John Poinsot的Tractatus de Signis达到顶峰,然后在1867年查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士尝试起草“新范畴表”时复兴。最近,翁贝托·埃科在他的《符号学和语言哲学》中指出,大多数,甚至可能是所有重要思想家的作品中,都可能蕴含着符号学理论。
由於符號學涵蓋的範圍過於廣闊,一段時間內在西方世界的人文科學中並未得到重視,直至結構主義在二十世紀下半期興起,以《Tel Quel》雜誌為號召的哲學家,為了反對让-保罗·萨特的存在主义,則大量引用俄羅斯在共產革命前的一系列有關符號在文化上的再現過程的研究,故此,當今所講的符號學在1960年代才正式出現(李維史陀)。符號學即一門分析符號系統如何運作的科學,探索意義如何透過符碼、記號,在人類的溝通過程中被生產與傳遞;符號學認為,溝通的基礎是傳播者之間對於這套符碼系統背後的規則與結構有共同的理解。
現代符號學一個主要源頭是上世紀初瑞士語言學泰斗索緒爾的教學講稿《普通语言学教程》(1916年),索緒爾將符號分成能指(signifier,符徵、意符)和所指(signified,符旨、意指)兩個互為表裡的聯結,真正確立了符號學的理論基礎,影響了後來李維史陀和罗兰·巴特等法國結構主義的學者,被譽為現代符號學之父。
符號學的另一主要源頭是美國邏輯學家查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士發展出的邏輯形式的符號學,在當代的意义建构[11]研究中的重要性已躍居索緒爾、李維史陀、羅蘭·巴特之上,是對符號學發展影響最重要的人物之一。
主張和構成
符號學中,將記號(sign,徵象),即是可能發生意義的事態呈現,後經過覺知而轉化為單一符號或符號系統,根據其傳播模式而分類。所傳播之意味以使用的編碼而確定,並且將符號分成能指(signifier,符徵、意符)和所指(signified,符旨、意指)兩部分。廣義上,這種能指可以是一段聲音、一個手勢、一個字符、或是一切所見所聞之事物。但是一個能指和所指的對應關係,只有在一個集體共同認可才可以形成,而通常來說,這不僅與語言中的詞彙相關,且聯繫到語法。這對應關係所代表的事或物,也可能會因為社會和文化關係而帶有隱意。
在《訊息與意味》(Messages and Meanings: An Introduction to Semiotics, 1994)一書中,馬歇爾·達耐西(Marcel Danes)提出符號學家的職責應以研究指示關係為優先,其次才是溝通交流。
以文化為研究範圍的是現代符號學的特質,當中包括民間故事分析(folklore analysis)、人类学(anthropology)、敘事學(narratology)、言說分析(discourse analysis)、神話符號學(semiotics of myth)、藝術符號學(semiotics of art)等領域。
符號學包括三個分支:語用學(pragmatics)、語義學(semantics)、句法学(syntactics)。
罗兰·巴特認為,記號有三個意義化的層次:這三層意義由外在到深層隱晦依序為明示義(denotation)、隱含義(connotation)以及意識形態(ideology)。
- 第一層明示義:記號具外觀之具體、外顯且可見的明顯意義,容易轉化為符號。
- 第二層包含隱含義與迷思(myth):一個記號的意義並不是因為他與世界中的某樣事物有絕對的對應關係,而是以彼此之間的關係來產生意義的,所以將第一層的符號化體系嵌進文化價值體系之內,而有使記號有其符號的意義。
- 第三層意識形態:反映出文化用來組織和解釋現實的廣泛規則。
第一層 | 明示義 | 實際出現的內容 |
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第二層 | 隱含義 | 說明文本的權力效果 |
迷思 | ||
第三層 | 意識形態 |
主要學派
瑞士結構主義符號學(1907年)
费迪南·德·索绪尔(1857–1913)是瑞士開創現代语言学先河的語言學家。他於1907年畢業後開始授課並編講稿,本身並沒有作品傳世,目前有名的《普通语言学教程》(1916年)是來自索緒爾的講稿,由兩位學生合編而成。他創立的符號學稱為“semiology”,是按希臘語的「符號」衍生出來的用語。索緒爾建立的符號學是作為一種對人類社會使用符號的法則進行研究的科學,有別於傳統語文學對語言的歷史演變進行歷時性研究,現代語言學集中處理在當下時空之中,語言內部的指涉法則,這種共時性的研究是索緒爾開創先河的提法,往後影響了法國的結構主義語言學、奧地利哲學家維根斯坦、美國衍生語言學家諾姆·喬姆斯基等。
由於索緒爾把語言符號分成兩部份來處理,為研究文化符號或者意識型態的學者,提供了有系統的分析方法學,八十年代至九十年代間,在歐美文化批評界,符號學盛極一時。到目前為止,全球學院訓練的文化批評者仍有不少使用符號學方法進行文化現象的結構分析。
自19世紀末起,符號學興起之初是研究語言的一門學科,但目前研究語言的符號學已多用语言学指稱,現今符號學意義指稱的是結構主義符號學(structuralist semiotics)。
索緒爾符號學的特點是:
- 二元傳統:一個符號(sign)分成能指(signifier,符徵、意符)和所指(signified,符旨、意指)兩部分。能指是符號的語音形象;所指是符號的意義概念部份。由兩部分組成的一個整體,簡稱為符號。
- 符號的任意性:能指和所指兩者之間的關係存在任意性(arbitrariness),沒有必然聯繫。例如英文中的「tree」和中文的「樹」的發聲及串字組合,因約定俗成的習慣,指涉為「一種以木質枝桿為主體的葉本植物」的概念。
Thomas Sebeok[註 4]将“semiology”吸收进了更广泛的符号学“semiotics”,将索绪尔的符号学视为符号学整体的一部分,他也参与了第一个符号研究国际期刊《Semiotica》的定名。索绪尔符号学对结构主义和后结构主义流派影响深远。例如,雅克·德里达研究索绪尔提出的能指和所指关系时,指出能指和所指均不是固定的,遂创造“延异”(différance)一词,表示意义的无限延迟以及“超越的所指”的缺失。
皮爾士的符號學(1860年代)
19世纪,查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士将他所谓的“符号学”(semiotic,他有时将其拼作“semeiotic”)定义为“准必要的或形式的符号学说”,它抽象了“必须是所有符号的特征”所使用的符号……一种能够通过经验学习的智能,”[12]并且这是在符号和符号过程方面追求的哲学逻辑。[13][14]一般认为,皮尔士的符号学是符号的哲学逻辑研究(符号未必是语言或人工的符号)、符号过程、推理模式和一般探究过程。皮尔士符号学不仅涉及外部交流机制(类似索绪尔的符号学),还涉及内部表征机器、探究符号过程、推理模式,以及一般意义的整个探究过程。
与索绪尔的二元传统(能指、所指)不同,皮尔士的符号学是三元的,包括符号、对象、解释项。 皮尔士符号学进一步将三元中的每一元细分为三个子类型:像似符号、指示符号、规约符号。[15]
皮尔士学派的学者和编辑Max H. Fisch(1978)[註 5]称,符号学的“semeiotic”一词是皮尔士个人偏好的对洛克所说的σημιωτική的翻译。[16]查尔斯·W·莫里斯跟随皮尔士使用了“符号学”这一叫法,并将这门学科从人类交流扩展到动物学习和信号的使用。
索绪尔的符号学是二元的(符号-句法、信号-语义),而皮尔士的符号学是三元的(符号、对象、解释项),皮尔士是根据符号研究的哲学逻辑构思的,其中符号并不一定是语言或人为的。
皮尔士的范畴表
皮尔士的目标是将他的新的范畴表直接建立在由符号作用构成的经验之上,这与亚里士多德的范畴表不同,后者旨在透过人类理解,于经验内部阐释存在的维度,而存在的维度不依赖于经验,并且本身是可知的。
一般认为,皮尔士的符号学是符号的哲学逻辑研究(符号未必是语言或人工的符号)、符号过程、推理模式和一般探究过程。皮尔士符号学不仅涉及外部交流机制(类似索绪尔的符号学),还涉及内部表征机器、探究符号过程、推理模式,以及一般意义的整个探究过程。
动物能够解释其感知到的环境,并形成对象的“有意义的世界”,但是这个世界(或用Jakob von Uexküll的术语说,是“客观世界”,德語:Umwelt)[17]中仅有三种对象,即对于动物而言好(+)、不好(–)或“可安全地忽略”(0)的对象。
与动物不同,人类的理解在动物的“客观世界”基础上增加了一种对象内部的自我同一性关系,这种关系将所经验的对象转化为事物以及+、-、0对象。[18][註 6]由此,一般动物的客观世界就变成为了人类独有的客观世界,即“生活世界”(Lebenswelt),其中语言交流(源于生物学上未确定的人类“内在世界”(Innenwelt))开启了文化组织这一新的维度,而其他动物虽然也有社会组织,但其观察能力只能处理可直接感知的客观性实例。
人类文化之所以依赖于语言,并非首要是为了理解为交流,而是作为人类动物“内在世界”(Innenwelt)的生物学的未确定方面或特征,这一观点最初由Thomas A. Sebeok明确指出。[19][20]Sebeok在将皮尔士的研究带到二十世纪符号学舞台的中心上也发挥了核心作用[註 7],首先,他将人类符号活动(anthroposemiosis)扩展,囊括一般的动物符号活动(zoösemiosis),[註 8]然后再进一步扩展,使符号学囊括了植物符号活动(phytosemiosis)。这一创新最初是基于Martin Krampen的研究[21],但也利用了皮尔士的观点,即解释项作为符号关系中的第三项,“不必是精神的”。[22][23][24]
皮尔士区分了解释项和解释者。解释项是介于对象及其符号之间的内部心理表征,而解释者是创造解释项的人。[25]皮尔士的“解释项”概念开辟了理解动物生命领域以外的符号行为的方法(对"phytosemiosis植物符号活动" + "zoösemiosis 动物符号活动" + "anthroposemiosis 人类符号活动" 的研究 = biosemiotics 生物符号学),这是他超越拉丁时代符号学的第一个进步。[註 9]
符号学领域的其他早期理论家还包括查尔斯·莫里斯。[26]Jozef Maria Bochenski在1951年研究该领域时写道:“与数理逻辑密切相关的是所谓的符号学(Charles Morris),现已被数理逻辑学家普遍采用。符号学是符号的理论,分为三个部分:(1)逻辑句法学,符号相互关系的理论,(2)逻辑语义学,符号与符号所代表的东西之间的关系的理论,以及(3)逻辑语用学,符号、符号含义和符号使用者之间的关系。”[27]Max Black认为伯特兰·罗素的工作在该领域具有开创性意义。[28]
俄國符號學(1917年之前)
- 弗拉基米爾·雅可夫列維奇·普羅普
- 米哈伊爾·米哈伊洛維奇·巴赫金
- 羅曼·奧西波維奇·雅克布森
- 尼古拉·謝爾蓋耶維奇·特魯別茨柯依
- 俄國形式主義:發展時期為1910至1930,深刻影響巴赫金、洛特曼和結構主義。
蘇聯符號學(1960年)
法國結構主義符號學(1960年)
美國符號學
- 查爾斯·桑德斯·皮爾士:他的全集中有大量著作涉及所有意義發生過程的深入討論。經過Thomas Sebeok以及Tartu學派的宣揚,已經在二十世紀末至今取得Semiotics龍頭的地位。
- 迈克尔·希尔弗斯坦
義大利符號學
藝術上的應用
符號學作為藝術作品研究的一門學科分支,包括研究符號的定義和該定義的成因源頭。很多時候符號學者會研究其他不同的生物作參考估計自然世界中的符號的形成。符號學學者相信以藝術作品中不起眼的個別符號作為參考對象,可以看出作者所希望傳遞的訊息。符號在藝術上的象徵性,是用來解釋畫面的一種視覺語言。較常見的如電影符號學,探討導演透過諸如場景擺設和入場音樂所反映的心態。在暢銷小說《達文西密碼》中,主角透過符號學分析達文西的畫作,揭露了耶穌擁有世俗血脈的議論性訊息。
备注
- ^ 此为當前兩岸通用的譯名;舊譯為「記號學」。
- ^ 現代符號學中,英文文獻的sign和symbol有時並不嚴格區分。但是在古希臘,自然記號和人工符號是兩個不同概念,大致可對應英文的sign和symbol。本條目中,當兩者不需要區分時,sign和symbol一律譯作「符號」,以符合中文學術界習慣;當兩者概念對立或並列時,按學者李幼蒸著作,將sign譯為「記號」,symbol譯為「符號」,以期符合其他條目(如記號、規約符號)之論述。此外,許多學者如趙毅衡,將 sign 譯為“符號”,symbol 譯為“象征”;還有一些學者把sign譯作「徵象」。
- ^ See also Andrew LaVelle's discussion of Romeo on Peirce-l.
- ^ The whole anthology, Frontiers in Semiotics, was devoted to the documentation of this pars pro toto move of Sebeok
- ^ Max Fisch has compiled Peirce-related bibliographical supplements in 1952, 1964, 1966, 1974; was consulting editor on the 1977 microfilm of Peirce's published works and on the Comprehensive Bibliography associated with it; was among the main editors of the first five volumes of Writings of Charles S. Peirce (1981–1993); and wrote a number of published articles on Peirce, many collected in 1986 in Peirce, Semeiotic, and Pragmatism. See also Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography.
- ^ "The distinction between the being of existing Dasein and the Being of entities, such as Reality, which do not have the character of Dasein...is nothing with which philosophy may tranquilize itself. It has long been known that ancient ontology works with 'Thing-concepts' and that there is a danger of 'reifying consciousness'. But what does this 'reifying' signify? Where does it arise? Why does Being get 'conceived' 'proximally' in terms of the present-at-hand and not in terms of the ready-to-hand, which indeed lies closer to us? Why does reifying always keep coming back to exercise its dominion?" This is the question that the Umwelt/Lebenswelt distinction as here drawn answers to." (Heidegger 1962/1927:486)
- ^ Detailed demonstration of Sebeok's role of the global emergence of semiotics is recorded in at least three recent volumes: (1) Semiotics Seen Synchronically. The View from 2010 (Ottawa: Legas, 2010). (2) Semiotics Continues To Astonish. Thomas A. Sebeok and the Doctrine of Signs (Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2011)—a 526-page assemblage of essays, vignettes, letters, pictures attesting to the depth and extent of Sebeok's promotion of semiotic understanding around the world, including his involvement with Juri Lotman and the Tartu University graduate program in semiotics (currently directed by P. Torop, M. Lotman and K. Kull). (3) Sebeok's Semiotic Prologues (Ottawa: Legas, 2012)—a volume which gathers together in Part I all the "prologues" (i.e., introductions, prefaces, forewords, etc.) that Sebeok wrote for other peoples' books, then in Part 2 all the "prologues" that other people wrote for Sebeok.
- ^ See Sebeok, Thomas A. "Communication in Animals and Men." A review article that covers three books: Martin Lindauer, Communication among Social Bees (Harvard Books in Biology, No. 2; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961, pp. ix + 143); Winthrop N. Kellogg, Porpoises and Sonar (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1961, pp. xiv + 177); and John C. Lilly, Man and Dolphin (Garden City, New York: Doubleday), in Language 39 (1963), 448–466.
- ^ For a summary of Peirce's contributions to semiotics, see Liszka (1996) or Atkin (2006).
參考文獻
- ^ Campbell, C., Olteanu, A., & Kull, K. (2019). Learning and knowing as semiosis: Extending the conceptual apparatus of semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). Sign Systems Studies 47(3/4), 352–381.
- ^ Caesar, Michael. Umberto Eco: Philosophy, Semiotics, and the Work of Fiction. Wiley-Blackwell. 1999: 55. ISBN 978-0-7456-0850-1.
- ^ Semiology vs. semiotics. University of Eastern Finland. (原始内容存档于18 January 2019).
- ^ "The science of communication studied through the interpretation of signs and symbols as they operate in various fields, esp. language", Oxford English Dictionary (2003)
- ^ Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. 1940. "σημειωτικός." A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented by H. S. Jones and R. McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Available via Perseus Digital Library (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- ^ σημεῖον (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ^ Semiotics for Beginners: Signs. visual-memory.co.uk. [2017-03-26]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-14).
- ^ Deely, John. 2009. Augustine & Poinsot: The Protosemiotic Development. Scranton: University of Scranton Press. [provides full details of Augustine's originality on the notion of semiotics.]
- ^ Romeo, Luigi. 1977. "The Derivation of 'Semiotics' through the History of the Discipline." Semiosis 6(2):37–49.
- ^ Manetti, Giovanni. 1993 [1987]. Theories of the Sign in Classical Antiquity, translated by C. Richardson. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. [Original: Le teorie del segno nell'antichità classica (1987). Milan: Bompiani.]
- ^ The Science of Meaning: Essays on the Metatheory of Natural Language Semantics. Oxford University Press. 2018. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018).
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vol. 2: para. 227.
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1998 [1902]. "Logic, Regarded As Semeiotic (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)," [manuscript L75] Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway, edited by J. Ransdell.
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1998 [1902]. "On the Definition of Logic (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)." [memoir 12]. Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway, edited by J. Ransdell.
- ^ Atkin, Albert, Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri , 编, Peirce's Theory of Signs, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2023 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University), 2023 [2023-03-21], (原始内容存档于2023-06-27)
- ^ Fisch, Max H. (1978), "Peirce's General Theory of Signs" in Sight, Sound, and Sense, ed. T. A. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 31–70.
- ^ 2001. "Umwelt." Semiotica 134(1). Pp. 125–135. [special issue on "Jakob von Uexküll: A paradigm for biology and semiotics," guest-edited by K. Kull.]
- ^ Heidegger, Martin. 1962 [1927]. Being and Time, translated by J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson. New York: Harper & Row. p. 487.
- '^ Sebeok, Thomas A. 1986. "Communication, Language, and Speech. Evolutionary Considerations." Pp. 10–16 in I Think I Am A Verb. More Contributions to the Doctrine of Signs. New York: Plenum Press. Published lecture. Original lecture title "The Evolution of Communication and the Origin of Language," in International Summer Institute for Semiotic and Structural Studies Colloquium on 'Phylogeny and Ontogeny of Communication Systems (June 1–3, 1984).
- ^ Sebeok, Thomas A. 2012. "Afterword (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)." Pp. 365–83 in Semiotic Prologues, edited by J. Deely and M. Danesi. Ottawa: Legas.
- ^ Krampen, Martin. 1981. "Phytosemiotics." Semiotica 36(3):187–209.
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1934 [1907] "A Survey of Pragmaticism." P. 473. in The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce 5, edited by C. Hartshorne and P. Weiss. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [originally titled "Excerpt from "Pragmatism (Editor [3])"]
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1977 [1908]. "letter to Lady Welby 23 December 1908" [letter]. Pp. 73–86 in Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between C. S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby, edited by C. S. Hardwick and J. Cook. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. 2009. "Semiosis: The Subject Matter of Semiotic Inquiry." Pp. 26–50 in Basics of Semiotics (5th ed.), edited by J. Deely. Tartu, Estonia: Tartu University Press. See especially pp. 31,38– 41.
- ^ LOGOS – Multilingual Translation Portal. courses.logos.it. [2017-03-26]. (原始内容存档于2023-03-26).
- ^ 1971, orig. 1938, Writings on the general theory of signs, Mouton, The Hague, The Netherlands
- ^ Jozef Maria Bochenski (1956) Contemporary European Philosophy, trans. Donald Nichols and Karl Ashenbrenner from 1951 edition, Berkeley, CA: University of California, Section 25, "Mathematical Logic," Subsection F, "Semiotics," p. 259.
- ^ Black, Max. 1944. The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell 5. Library of Living Philosophers.
延伸阅读
- Atkin, Albert. (2006). "Peirce's Theory of Signs (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Barthes, Roland. ([1957] 1987). Mythologies. New York: Hill & Wang.
- Barthes, Roland ([1964] 1967). Elements of Semiology. (Translated by Annette Lavers & Colin Smith). London: Jonathan Cape.
- Chandler, Daniel. (2001/2007). Semiotics: The Basics. London: Routledge.
- Clarke, D. S. (1987). Principles of Semiotic. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Clarke, D. S. (2003). Sign Levels. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- Culler, Jonathan (1975). Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Danesi, Marcel & Perron, Paul. (1999). Analyzing Cultures: An Introduction and Handbook. Bloomington: Indiana UP.
- Danesi, Marcel. (1994). Messages and Meanings: An Introduction to Semiotics. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
- Danesi, Marcel. (2002). Understanding Media Semiotics. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford UP.
- Danesi, Marcel. (2007). The Quest for Meaning: A Guide to Semiotic Theory and Practice. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Decadt, Yves. 2000. On the Origin and Impact of Information in the Average Evolution: From Bit to Attractor, Atom and Ecosystem [Dutch]. Summary in English available at The Information Philosopher (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- Deely, John. (2005 [1990]). Basics of Semiotics. 4th ed. Tartu: Tartu University Press.
- Deely, John. (2000), The Red Book: The Beginning of Postmodern Times or: Charles Sanders Peirce and the Recovery of Signum. Sonesson, Göran. Pictorial concepts. Inquiries into the semiotic heritage and its relevance for the analysis of the visual world. Lund: Lund University Press. 1989.Sonesson, Göran, 1989, Pictorial concepts. Inquiries into the semiotic heritage and its relevance for the analysis of the visual world, Lund: Lund University Press.(578 KiB)Pictorial concepts. Inquiries into the semiotic heritage and its relevance for the analysis of the visual worldEprint (PDF). [2023-05-22]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-02-15). (571 KiB).
- Deely, John. (2001). Four Ages of Understanding. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Deely, John. (2003), "On the Word Semiotics, Formation and Origins", Semiotica 146.1/4, 1–50.
- Deely, John. (2003). The Impact on Philosophy of Semiotics. South Bend: St. Augustine Press.
- Deely, John. (2004), "'Σημειον' to 'Sign' by Way of 'Signum': On the Interplay of Translation and Interpretation in the Establishment of Semiotics", Semiotica 148–1/4, 187–227.
- Deely, John. (2006), "On 'Semiotics' as Naming the Doctrine of Signs", Semiotica 158.1/4 (2006), 1–33.
- Derrida, Jacques (1981). Positions. (Translated by Alan Bass). London: Athlone Press.
- Eagleton, Terry. (1983). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
- Eco, Umberto. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. London: Macmillan.
- Eco, Umberto. (1986) Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Eco, Umberto. (2000) Kant and the Platypus. New York, Harcourt Brace & Company.
- Eco, Umberto. (1976) A Theory of Semiotics. Indiana, Indiana University Press.
- Emmeche, Claus; Kull, Kalevi (eds.) (2011) Towards a Semiotic Biology: Life is the Action of Signs. London: Imperial College Press. pdf (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Foucault, Michel. (1970). The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. London: Tavistock.
- Greimas, Algirdas. (1987). On Meaning: Selected Writings in Semiotic Theory. (Translated by Paul J Perron & Frank H Collins). London: Frances Pinter.
- Herlihy, David. 1988–present. "2nd year class of semiotics". CIT.
- Hjelmslev, Louis (1961). Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. (Translated by Francis J. Whitfield). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press
- Hodge, Robert & Kress, Gunther. (1988). Social Semiotics. Ithaca: Cornell UP.
- Lacan, Jacques. (1977) Écrits: A Selection. (Translated by Alan Sheridan). New York: Norton.
- Lidov, David (1999) Elements of Semiotics. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Liszka, J. J. (1996) A General Introduction to the Semeiotic of C.S. Peirce. Indiana University Press.
- Locke, John, The Works of John Locke, A New Edition, Corrected, In Ten Volumes, Vol.III, T. Tegg, (London), 1823. (facsimile reprint by Scientia, (Aalen), 1963.)
- Lotman, Yuri M. (1990). Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory of Culture. (Translated by Ann Shukman). London: I.B. Tauris.
- Morris, Charles W. (1971). Writings on the general theory of signs. The Hague: Mouton.
- Menchik, Daniel A; Tian, Xiaoli. Putting Social Context into Text: The Semiotics of E‐mail Interaction (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 2008, 114 (2): 332–70 [2023-05-22]. S2CID 8161899. doi:10.1086/590650. hdl:10722/141740 . (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2023-08-24).
- Nattiez, Jean-Jacques. (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music. Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Translation of: Musicologie générale et sémiologue. Collection Musique/Passé/Présent 13. Paris: C. Bourgois, 1987).
- Peirce, Charles S. (1934). Collected papers: Volume V. Pragmatism and pragmaticism. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press.
- Petrilli, Susan. Semiotics as semioethics in the era of global communication. Semiotica. 2009, 2009 (173): 343–67. S2CID 143553063. doi:10.1515/SEMI.2009.015.
- Ponzio, Augusto & S. Petrilli (2007) Semiotics Today. From Global Semiotics to Semioethics, a Dialogic Response. New York, Ottawa, Toronto: Legas. 84 pp. ISBN 978-1-894508-98-8
- Romeo, Luigi (1977), "The Derivation of 'Semiotics' through the History of the Discipline", Semiosis, v. 6 pp. 37–50.
- Sebeok, T.A. (1976), Contributions to the Doctrine of Signs, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
- Sebeok, Thomas A. (Editor) (1977). A Perfusion of Signs. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
- Signs and Meaning: 5 Questions, edited by Peer Bundgaard and Frederik Stjernfelt, 2009 (Automatic Press / VIP). (Includes interviews with 29 leading semioticians of the world.)
- Short, T.L. (2007), Peirce's Theory of Signs, Cambridge University Press.
- Stubbe, Henry (Henry Stubbe), The Plus Ultra reduced to a Non Plus: Or, A Specimen of some Animadversions upon the Plus Ultra of Mr. Glanvill, wherein sundry Errors of some Virtuosi are discovered, the Credit of the Aristotelians in part Re-advanced; and Enquiries made...., (London), 1670.
- von Uexküll, Thure. Semiotics and medicine. Semiotica. 1982, 38 (3–4). S2CID 201698735. doi:10.1515/semi.1982.38.3-4.205.
- Williamson, Judith. (1978). Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London: Boyars.
- Zlatev, Jordan. (2009). "The Semiotic Hierarchy: Life, Consciousness, Signs and Language, Cognitive Semiotics". Sweden: Scania.
外部連結
- Signo (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) — presents semiotic theories and theories closely related to semiotics.
- The Semiotics of the Web (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Center for Semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) — Denmark: Aarhus University
- Semiotic Society of America (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Open Semiotics Resource Center (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) — includes journals, lecture courses, etc.
- Applied Semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
皮爾士傳統
- Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Semiotics according to Robert Marty (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), with 76 definitions of the sign by C. S. Peirce (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- The Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
期刊和丛书
- American Journal of Semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by J. Deely and C. Morrissey. US: Semiotic Society of America.
- Applied Semiotics / Sémiotique appliquée (AS/SA) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by P. G. Marteinson & P. G. Michelucci. CA: University of Toronto.
- Approaches to Applied Semiotics[失效連結] (2000–09 series), edited by T. Sebeok, et al. Berlin: De Gruyter.
- Approaches to Semiotics (1969–97 series), edited by T. A. Sebeok, A. Rey, R. Posner, et al. Berlin: De Gruyter.
- Biosemiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by M. Barbieri (eic). International Society for Biosemiotic Studies (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- Cybernetics and Human Knowing (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by S. Brier, (chief).
- International Journal of Marketing Semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by G. Rossolatos, (chief).
- International Journal of Signs and Semiotic Systems (IJSSS) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by A, Loula & J. Queiroz.
- The Public Journal of Semiotics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by P. Bouissac (eic), A. Cienki (assoc.), R. Jorna, and W. Nöth.
- S.E.E.D. Journal (Semiotics, Evolution, Energy, and Development) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (2001–7), edited by E. Taborsky. Toronto: SEE (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- The Semiotic Review of Books (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by G. Genosko (gen.) and P. Bouissac (founding ed.).
- Semiotica, edited by M. Danesi (chief). International Association for Semiotic Studies (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- Semiotiche, edited by A. Valle and M. Visalli.
- Semiotics, Communication and Cognition[失效連結] (series), edited by P. Cobley and K. Kull.
- Semiotics: Yearbook of the Semiotic Society of America (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by J. Pelkey. US: Semiotic Society of America.
- SemiotiX New Series: A Global Information Bulletin (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by P. Bouissac, et al.
- Sign Systems Studies (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by K. Kull, K. Lindstrom, M. Lotman, T. Maran, S. Salupere, P. Torop. Estonia: Dept. of Semiotics, U. of Tartu (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- Signs and Society (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), edited by R. J. Parmentier.
- Signs: International Journal of Semiotics, edited by M. Thellefsen, T. Thellefsen, and B. Sørensen, (chief eds.).
- Tartu Semiotics Library (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (series), edited by P. Torop, K. Kull, S. Salupere.
- Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, edited by C. de Waal (chief). The Charles S. Peirce Society.
- Versus: Quaderni di studi semiotici, founded by U. Eco.